~ ~ The Precedent
Turks attempt a landing in Constantinople Osmanli Denizcilik Collection - 712
(Courtesy of Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz
Besitkas, Istanbul-Türkiye)
(Courtesy of Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz
Besitkas, Istanbul-Türkiye)
The takeover of the capital of the Byzantine Empire (Roman Empire East) (1) occurred Wednesday May 29, 1453, according to the Julian calendar. This date marks an important point in history: the end of the millennium total Roman Empire, the consolidation of Ottoman power in the Mediterranean and the Balkans and the exodus of grecobizantinos to Europe with his background of Consciousness, which prompted the start of the European Renaissance and, like most historians agree, marks the end of the Middle Ages more than any other event (2) .
The final fall of Byzantium had been preceded by several attempts to conquer and since around 1400, the Empire had been reduced borders to a small area around the capital, a couple of possessions in a Greci and some adjacent islands. Even by being separated from the core of the empire and for the same historical conditions of their formation , these Greek territories enjoyed great autonomy and instead could be called "allies" that "possessions", in addition to having produced several rebellions, including one in 1187 led by General Alexios Branas, with Emperor Isaac II Angelus (3) .
The final fall of Byzantium had been preceded by several attempts to conquer and since around 1400, the Empire had been reduced borders to a small area around the capital, a couple of possessions in a Greci and some adjacent islands. Even by being separated from the core of the empire and for the same historical conditions of their formation , these Greek territories enjoyed great autonomy and instead could be called "allies" that "possessions", in addition to having produced several rebellions, including one in 1187 led by General Alexios Branas, with Emperor Isaac II Angelus (3) .
Byzantine Empire about 1400. The arrival of Boniface of Montserrat to help the Emperor to quell the uprising, was indirectly a precedent in 1190, during preparations for the Third Crusade, which caused the decline of the empire began its march, and always to forward until its fall. European Christians hoped that Byzantium acted as an ally in the company against the Muslims, then owners of the Holy Land, but Eastern refused, claiming that Saladin (4) common enemy of Christianity, was too powerful and was useless wasting lives forces and try to beat him, so it remained neutral. This attitude meant that in 1204, and in the next crusade, the Franks took the city by assault, looting and forming the Latin Empire was called, of relatively short duration (until 1261).
Entrée des Croisés à Constantinople
Eugène Delacroix, 1839-40.
Musée du Louvre, Paris
Eugène Delacroix, 1839-40.
Musée du Louvre, Paris
A neighbor of the Latin Empire, Empire of Nicaea ruled at the time by Michael VIII Palaeologus, was conquered in 1261, taking Michael to himself the title of co- Emperor with his son Andronicus, leading to a long dynasty that ruled until the final fall of 1453 (5) . After the birth and expansion of the Ottoman Empire (6) , the city began to suffer attacks of this new and increasingly strong enemy. Previously he had suffered up to 22 fences and assaults of the most diverse invaders (Germans, Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Russians ...) to all who resisted.
But the Turks and Byzantium had taken from their last possessions in Anatolia, included Nicaea in 1331. In 1341, the death of Andronicus III, his son John V Palaeologus was underage, so Anne, his wife, decided to appoint a clergyman, John (VI) Cantacuzenus, co-regent and tutor to his son. Cantacuzenus proclaims itself sole ruler in 1343 and calls for military aid to Turkey to control the last proponents of restoring the dynasty Paleologos. To avoid a civil war, Ana, reached an agreement with Cantacuzenus, which is to do co-emperor, "half" with John V, taking the clergyman more authority in the first ruling in 10 years and thereafter equal, when John reached the age of majority. In 1349 Cantacuzenus again ask for help from the Turks, this time to repel the attack by Serbia against Thessaloniki. And finally, in 1351, civil war broke out between supporters of John V and Cantacuzenus, who had no intention of giving, not just the part that would balance the two halves, but nothing of the power acquired during the minority of the heir, who even tried to expel definitively the throne. So he went to seek help from the Turks, with whom he came into alliance. In return they would cede to the Ottoman fortress on the European shore of the Dardanelles.
View
Dardanelles Stock Kartpostal Osmanli -158
(Courtesy of Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz
the death of John V, in 1391, Sultan Bayezid I (Bayac Yıldırım, "lightning") required to intervene in the internal politics of Byzantium, calling for the appointment of the new emperor was submitted to its vote (and veto), but Manuel II Palaeologus, son of John V, ascended the throne, which was an act of contempt in the eyes of the Ottomans. Moreover, the Turks had begun to lay the foundation for a district-only merchants and traders in the Turkish capital, to which Manuel objected. This was reason for Bayezid besieged the city by land that same year: this was the first siege of Constantinople by the Turks before making final. After seven months of siege, Manuel II accepted the conditions of Bayazid and the Turks retreated to the northern front, where they kept wars with Hungarians and Serbs.
But the Turks and Byzantium had taken from their last possessions in Anatolia, included Nicaea in 1331. In 1341, the death of Andronicus III, his son John V Palaeologus was underage, so Anne, his wife, decided to appoint a clergyman, John (VI) Cantacuzenus, co-regent and tutor to his son. Cantacuzenus proclaims itself sole ruler in 1343 and calls for military aid to Turkey to control the last proponents of restoring the dynasty Paleologos. To avoid a civil war, Ana, reached an agreement with Cantacuzenus, which is to do co-emperor, "half" with John V, taking the clergyman more authority in the first ruling in 10 years and thereafter equal, when John reached the age of majority. In 1349 Cantacuzenus again ask for help from the Turks, this time to repel the attack by Serbia against Thessaloniki. And finally, in 1351, civil war broke out between supporters of John V and Cantacuzenus, who had no intention of giving, not just the part that would balance the two halves, but nothing of the power acquired during the minority of the heir, who even tried to expel definitively the throne. So he went to seek help from the Turks, with whom he came into alliance. In return they would cede to the Ottoman fortress on the European shore of the Dardanelles.
View Dardanelles Stock Kartpostal Osmanli -158
(Courtesy of Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz
Besitkas, Istanbul-Türkiye
Amid campaign, the Turks captured the city of Gallipoli and began to extend its control throughout the peninsula of the same name. Cantacuzenus demanded the return of the city and the Turks expected, turned against his ally and attacked Constantinople. Supporters of Cantacuzenus literally riddled with taxes that were required to finance the civil war and payment to the Turks, had ceased to support him and John V was easily the throne, yes, on condition of vassal of the Turks , who was providing logistical and military support for their campaigns in Europe, in addition to an annual tax cash (7) . the death of John V, in 1391, Sultan Bayezid I (Bayac Yıldırım, "lightning") required to intervene in the internal politics of Byzantium, calling for the appointment of the new emperor was submitted to its vote (and veto), but Manuel II Palaeologus, son of John V, ascended the throne, which was an act of contempt in the eyes of the Ottomans. Moreover, the Turks had begun to lay the foundation for a district-only merchants and traders in the Turkish capital, to which Manuel objected. This was reason for Bayezid besieged the city by land that same year: this was the first siege of Constantinople by the Turks before making final. After seven months of siege, Manuel II accepted the conditions of Bayazid and the Turks retreated to the northern front, where they kept wars with Hungarians and Serbs.
Some time later, in 1396, Bayezid called Manuel and other Christian kings of Europe, to expose the conseuencias would bring the Turkish resist subjugation. Manuel, suspecting that it was a plan to assassinate him, did not attend, which gave rise to attack the city Bajazet the second time, sweeping around and cutting off all supplies to the besieged by land not by sea, where the Turks could not then maintain a naval blockade of the city, so this resisitió and 6 years, until 1402, the year in which the armies of the mighty Tamerlane reached the eastern borders of the Ottoman Empire, which made these abandon their campaigns in Europe to stop the Mongols, removing , among others, to the troops held near Constantinople (8)
Byzantium was free from the Ottoman yoke for the next two decades, even regained some territories. But in 1422, Manuel II, imagining future to establish an alliance that assures non-aggression by the Turks, decided to support an Ottoman prince pretender to the sultanate. Big mistake, since the claimant was not exactly the desired by the then Sultan Murad II, who sent 10,000 troops to take the city once and for all. However, the walls of Constantinople withstood a strong assault again, ordering the withdrawal Murad several hours later.
The new Byzantine emperor John VIII, eldest son of Manuel II, the Vatican went looking for an approach to other Christian states, who had long years of indifference to Byzantium, who provided no support, nor even in its fight against Muslims, because of the differences between Catholics and Orthodox. John VIII accepted the union of two churches in one of which would be the legitimate pope Catholic Pope, of course. This happens in Florence in 1439 (9) . Dead
John VIII in 1448, acceded to the throne by his brother Constantine XI, who continued in attempts to unity and rapprochement between the two churches, which resulted in mistrust between the Byzantine Orthodox clergy and among the Turks. However, things seemed to "paint" it to Byzantium for Murad II died, his son Mehemed II promised not to attack their territories. But Constantine, feeling safe, even allowed the luxury of the sultan ransom a prisoner noble Turkish family member who was being held in Constantinople. Mehemed II, feeling more enraged by the defiance of Constantine the fate he could shoot his relative, he ordered preparations for the assault on the city.
The new Byzantine emperor John VIII, eldest son of Manuel II, the Vatican went looking for an approach to other Christian states, who had long years of indifference to Byzantium, who provided no support, nor even in its fight against Muslims, because of the differences between Catholics and Orthodox. John VIII accepted the union of two churches in one of which would be the legitimate pope Catholic Pope, of course. This happens in Florence in 1439 (9) . Dead
John VIII in 1448, acceded to the throne by his brother Constantine XI, who continued in attempts to unity and rapprochement between the two churches, which resulted in mistrust between the Byzantine Orthodox clergy and among the Turks. However, things seemed to "paint" it to Byzantium for Murad II died, his son Mehemed II promised not to attack their territories. But Constantine, feeling safe, even allowed the luxury of the sultan ransom a prisoner noble Turkish family member who was being held in Constantinople. Mehemed II, feeling more enraged by the defiance of Constantine the fate he could shoot his relative, he ordered preparations for the assault on the city.
Stock Turk Tarihi Denizcilik Sitesi - 13
(Courtesy of Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz
Besitkas, Istanbul-Türkiye)
(Courtesy of Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz
Besitkas, Istanbul-Türkiye)
NOTES:
(1) conventional names to refer to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.
(2) The concept of "Middle Ages" was introduced by historian and rhetorician Germany Christopher Keller, best known here as Christopher Cellarius (1638-1707), who in his History Medii Aevi to Constanini Magni temporibus ad Constaninopolim to Turcis captam deductive ( Jena, 1688 ) explains his model of the division of historical time, a model that has continued until today . Cellarius speaks of the "Ancient" as was the knowledge and culture, referring to the classic period Greco-Latin and placed himself in the modern age, beginning with the Renaissance and humanism, saying that the time between these two ages is an "interim" no historical value in itself, rather than by the fact divide the other two, he considered classics. This idea forged image-error-of the Middle Ages as a dark time of cultural decline in every way, a stop and turn back the knowledge. (Annex 1 º )
In fact, the fall of Byzantium is a "milestone conventional" to explain it somehow, because if it is true that from here the process is accelerated Renaissance can not speak of the end of the Middle Ages synchronous in that or any other point in the story, being rather a gradual process transformation of society which is taking root in different parts of Europe in a diachronic. A clear example is Spain, where the Middle Ages up to around 1512, when, after the fall of Granada, the English Catholic monarchy (regency of Ferdinand the Catholic) was annexed Navarre, then divided between supporters who advocated Aragon and adhere to their opponents who favored France. And if you truly
we want to be objective, traces of feudalism, whose disappearance has been taken also, inaccurately, as a reference to the Middle Ages, while reforming its external appearance, continued well into the nineteenth century, when the we can speak of the demise of the ancien regime .
(3) Taking Contantinopla in 1204, the Crusaders set their sights on * Thessaloniki, second largest city of the Byzantine Empire at that time. There, after having conquered a kingdom founded in 1205, the Kingdom of Thessalonica (Annex 2 º ) . Boniface of Montferrat
** , Leader of the Fourth Crusade, was a cousin of Frederick I "Barbarossa" and the younger brother of Monferrato Gullermo "Longaspata" and Corrado I of Jerusalem. The Genoese had hoped to name the new emperor of Byzantium, to which the Venetians were opposed on the grounds that Bonifacio would not benefit them because of their family and political connections, so I got to the throne was occupied by Baldwin of Flanders. Bonifacio reluctantly accepted the choice of flamenco, so that Thessalonica took for himself and founded the Kingdom of the same name.
The boundaries of the kingdom were confused, because since its foundation was at war with the Bulgarians and the Epirus Despotate , who had spent years trying to take over the scattered remains of the Byzantine Empire. A Boniface also ceded the island of Crete, which he later sold to the Venetians and conquered Euboea, where he established a dominion in conditions of servitude. He also contributed other crusaders to take and set the Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia (Annex 3 º ) .
(4) Sultan Saladin (1138-1193) - صلاح الدين يوسف الأيوبي , Al-Nasir Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub - born in Iraq and Kurdish origin, founded the Ayyubid dynasty and was the Sultan of Egypt, Syria and Palestine, as well as parts of Arabia (Hijaz), Yemen and Mesopotamia (now Iraq and environs) . Faced the Crusaders and recaptured Jerusalem for Islam, religion of which he was a fervent believer and defender of orthodoxy. Remains today a figure admired by cultures Kurdish, Arab and Muslim in general ( Annex 5 º )
(5) The Empire of Nicaea was the site of most entity occupying refugee Byzantine following the Emperor Alexius V Ducas, having left Constantinople without facing the Crusaders. These, as we have seen, supplanted the Eastern Empire, but could not gain control of all territories, especially in that part of Anatolia, home of the three most important centers of resistance Byzantine Empire of Nicaea the above, that of Trebizond and Epirus Despotate. During the 57 years of the Latin Empire of the Crusaders, these pockets, "waste" of ancient Byzantine, not slackened in its efforts to evict the Crusaders and recover Constantinople, which finally achieved in 1261 (Annex 4 º ) .
(6) Turks belonged to a tribe from Turkistan in Central Asia. In s.IX d, C. a branch of these Turkic tribes, the Seljuks, began to reign in Iraq and Iran and in the tenth century Anatolia arrive, wreaking havoc between the Byzantines and Arabs, occupying most of the peninsula and overturning and ending with the Abbasid Caliphate. The Seljuk Empire lasted until the XIII century, when another branch of the Turks, the Ottomans, has dealt a blow, giving way to the Ottoman Empire (Annex 6 º ) .
(7) Cantacuzenus The tactic was to promise followed by portions of the disputed territories and pay the Turks as mercenaries. Unable to keep his promises, decided to raise taxes to pay the mercenaries Ottoman, which contributed to many who initially supported him "changed sides", apart from the Turks cause "take" on their own , seizing several cities. When John V Palaeologus managed to grab the throne, he found that the Turks had already settled in several places, so he had no choice but to agree with them.
(8) The Tamerlane (1336-1405)- Persian Timur-i lang- was a Turkish leader of the Mongols, a nomadic people of Central Asia. Great conqueror, leader political and military armies roamed from Delhi to Moscow and from the mountains of Tien Shan *** to the Maures Mountains in Anatolia, conquered and reconquered, devastating and forgiving territories and cities. His fame spread throughout Europe and was synonymous with "terror" ( Annex 7 º ) .
(9) The Council of Florence was really a kind of "continuation" of the initiate in Basel in 1431, quite hilly as we shall see.
The Council of Basel was convened in 1431 and among its goals was the union of the Catholic igesias Orthodox. This council was the result of decisions taken in Constance in 1413, one of which established the periodicity of the councils to regularly review the righteousness of faith, because until that time the councils were called, usually for reasons related to the appearance of heresies. Basel
Then, attendees defended the validity of decisions taken there-trend councilist - over the opinion that the Pope could be, so it decided to dissolve the assembly by papal decree in view of the paths which was taking the matter. Participants receiving the bull of dissolution of the council, refused to obey.
No But the pope, pressed by the Holy Roman Empire and its many satellites, you love of the College of Cardinals, annulled the bull in 1433.
When the council will address the issue of the schism between Catholics and Orthodox, the speakers discussed whether Basel is the ideal place to continue the sessions, since it was removed to the legation Orthodox, so it is thought to continue in a place near Ferrara being chosen as the new headquarters of the council. There was restarted in 1438.
still be moved once again, as the Pope, Eugenius IV, who had to fix his residence in Florence after leaving Rome for a showdown with Colonna family, managed the council brought to that city in 1439. There, he met with the Byzantine emperor John VIII Palaeologus, signs the bull Laetentur Coeli, which recognizes the union of two churches and the end of the Schism. At the same time he was drafted Union Act. The sessions lasted until 1445.
However, Basel continued their particular council meeting many of the original participants who had not accepted the command of Eugene IV, so I decide to elect an antipope, Felix V, who abdicated in 1449, ending the discord between Basel speakers and the Vatican.
* is indistinito the use of Salonika or Thessaloniki, although the Hispanic Dictionary of Doubts points to the desirability of Thessaloniki used to refer to the ancient city Thessaloniki historical and current.
** The Marquess (later Duchy) of Montserrat was among Savoy, Milan and Genoa, and was dependent on the Holy Roman Empire. Upon arrival to the throne Charles V, gives it to the Duke of Mantua, so that arose from Marquis to a duchy.
Bonifacio's two brothers mentioned in footnote (3) , Gullermo and Conrad, were also famous. The
First, William, was nicknamed "Long Sword" to highlight their military skills, as opposed to his father, also named William, nicknamed "El Viejo". It was the Count of Jaffa and Ashkelon, in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Conrado
meanwhile had come to the aid of the emperor Isaac II to quell the revolt of Alexios Branas. Isaac Conrad had proposed to marry his sister Theodora, to which Conrad refused, because although he was a widower, claimed to be "a married man." Despite that existed between the two characters a certain friendship and finally
Although Jerusalem was in the hands of Saladin, was appointed king of the kingdom does not exist, when in fact, the only place in Christian hands was Tyre area, defended precisely because Conrad.
absence of any other page more accurate, Wikipedia provides enough information (acceptable) on the subject.
*** the Tian Shan mountains are the foothills of the Himalayas to the northwest of the Taklamakan Desert and occupies both sides of the borders of the modern states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and China, being in the latter country occupies more territory .
(Continued next entry)
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