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Los Caballeros de San Juan (1)


[Note (4) of Part 1 of Barbarossa)

~ From Jerusalem to Rhodes ~

The Sovereign Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, Rhodes and Malta was founded with a mission to protect the pilgrims who came to visit the holy places in Jerusalem. Unlike the Templars, who were essentially a military force, its purposes were essentially charitable, ie more than defend the pilgrims, attended.
The history of this order starts a precedent well before its founding in 1113, particularly around the year 600 AD when Pope San Gregorio Magno I entrusts the construction of a hospital in Jerusalem a ta l Abbot Probus. Later, about 800, Charlemagne ordered the extension of the hospital, which is run by Benedictine monks. Some 200 years later, in 1005, the Fatimid caliph of Egypt علی ظاهر - Ali az-Zahir - destroyed the hospital, and to devastate the city (an estimated 300 buildings were ruined). It was not until after the First Crusade -1095 - who took up the initiative to rebuild the hospital by Gerardo Tum, which Pope Paschal II confirmed by papal decree in 1113, as stated.
This Gerardo, do not know whether soldier or merchant, or both, "began collecting donations and that the order sought to be extended by the Kingdom of Jerusalem and beyond its borders.
was his successor, Raymond du Puy, who built a significant nursing near the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Although at first it was providing assistance to the pilgrims injured, sick, tired or hungry, they ended up giving armed escort, making the order for an organization of military structure, but without abandoning their own chores for which it was founded, so , mid-century XII could clearly distinguish two functions within the order, the military and the hospital performed the first of brothers-soldiers and the second by the hospitals themselves, who did not fight.
Along with the Templars, became the Christian group most powerful in the area, enjoying many privileges from the papacy. One was the permission to build their own buildings in any Christian country without being accountable to their owners, the Knights came to have seven great strengths in the Kingdom of Jerusalem and some 140 strongholds scattered around the area. The two major strengths of all were the Krak des Chevaliers - Krak des Chevaliers - and Margat both in the Principality of Antioch , now Syria.

Krak des Chevaliers

قلعة الحصن -

Margat

قلعة المرقب

Frederick I solemnly swore to give protection to the order in a charter granted in 1185. Only two years later, Jerusalem and Acre fall into the hands of Islam, conquered by Saladin. The first would remain in Muslim hands, while Acre is taken up by Richard I of England in 1191 and delivered to the order, who remained under control since 1229, as the capital of what remained of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, until 1291, year of disappearance thereof.

Having to leave the Holy Land, the order will be installed in Cyprus, where he had established a Christian kingdom ruled by the Lusignan House . By being named Grand Master Guillaume de Villaret in 1296, it was decided to reform the order, while seeking a settlement in their own territory, making use of the privileges granted by popes and emperors. It stares at Rhodes, then in the possession of Byzantium, and the island is attacked by the order in 1309, being fully occupied after two years of campaigning. Apart from the island, take control of some other nearby points such as Bodrum or Kastelorizo \u200b\u200b- Μεγίστη- off the coast of Anatolia.

Soon after, in 1312, the Temple is abolished and its members dispersed. Some Templars are passed to the hospital and with them their wealth. Thus began a period where the order would have to adapt to island conditions, for which the monitoring of pilgrimage routes had to be made from the sea, so they boosted the fleet was under way in Cyprus and the knights devoted to attacking convoys of Turkish ships, almost acting as pirates. The order also initiated a series of works aimed at making to Rhodes in the medieval ideal city. Apart from military and civilian buildings were reinforced and built walls that were effective against the attacks of the Sultan of Egypt in 1444 and the Ottoman Mehmet II in 1480. However, no definitive resisted the assault carried out by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1522 in conjunction with French troops at that time allied with the Turks.

Courtesy Muhteşem Denizcilik Tarihimiz
Collection Kartpostal Osmali - 177
Besitkas, Istanbul-Türkiye

Rhodes began the assault on 26 June. In the early days of siege the Turks blockaded the port and they landed just outside the walls, which began to bomb, but without causing damage. However, after 5 weeks of continuous fighting, the Turks dug tunnels under the walls and managed to blow two big mines made of gunpowder under the bastion defended by Language (1) of England, demolishing a large portion and opening was a considerable gap again and again attacked by the assailants, changing hands several times the area of \u200b\u200bdefenses. The situation remained so until 20 days later, when Suleiman ordered the massive attack: the bastion of the Language of Spain was taken and lost twice on the same day and finally the Turks retreated. This failure will cost the life of General Mustafa Pasha, Suleiman's brother, who was ordered executed by the sultan.
The deputy decided to hurry up the system to undermine the walls and punish them with artillery fire, although weeks later he tried a new massive attack was also repulsed.

Palace of the Grand Master of the Order, Rhodes

After several months of continuous fighting, both sides were at the limit of his strength, the men exhausted and suffering from reduced capacity defensive and demoralized and beaten by Turkish various diseases ranging from their camps. In mid-December Suleiman offered peace to the besieged by promising to respect their lives and give them food if they surrendered, otherwise you end up taking the city and kill and enslave the vanquished. Spurred by the public, the then Grand Master of the Order, Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, accepted the peace deal, so there was a truce several days. But the claims of the besieged exceeded that Suleiman was dispueto to grant at it, insulted, ordered the bombing and a new assault, which fell after the bastion of Spain and much of the walls had irreparable damage. The storming of the city was a matter of time and Greco-Latino citizens were willing to accept the terms imposed by Suleiman and the Grand Master finally agreed to the terms of the Turk, but not before renegotiate and achieve an honorable surrender. On January 1, 1523 the knights and soldiers accompanied by several hundred civilians, definitely abandoned the city in 50 boats that the Turks had made available.

the order until 1530, when Charles V gave him the islands of Malta, Gozo and Comino, and Tripoli (Libya) intended to protect that area of \u200b\u200bthe Ottoman push Mediterranean, which threatened to Tunisia attack. Here begin another stage of the hospital order.

"The Siege of Rhodes" . (1482-1483) Gérard
Louf, Master of the Cardinal of Bourbon.
Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Ms. Lat. 6067

continue


NOTES (1) The name Language were designated geographical divisions of the territories of the Order, equivalent to the provinces of other religious orders. It also served to bring together the knights and religious and ethnic / linguistic or cultural groups, thus facilitating coordination of operations. Different languages \u200b\u200bwere divided, in turn, in priories. This form of organization was to settle the Order in Rhodes, with the seven original languages: Language

• Provence, southern France, with Grand Priories in Toulouse and Saint-Gilles. Language
• Auvergne, central France, with Great Priory in Bourganeuf
• French Language: northern France, divided into three Grand Priories. Language
• Aragon : Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands, with Grand Priories in Aragon, Catalonia, Castilla, Leon, Navarre and Portugal.
• Italian Language: Grand Priories of Messina, Barletta, Capua, Rome, Pisa, Milanese and Venetian.
• England Language: For the whole of the British Isles, Grand Priory of England (including Scotland and Ireland).
• German Language : Great Priories of Bohemia, northern Germany, southern Germany, Dacia (Transylvania), Wallachia, Moldavia, Sweden, Poland and Hungary.

In 1462, the spread of Aragon, Castile and Portugal formed their own languages.

Bombarda used by the Knights of St. John
in the defense of Rhodes
Musée de l'Armée. Paris

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The Fall of Constantinople / Notes 9 and 10 of Part 2

(follow notes - 9 and 10)

(9) The word millet would be the Turkish equivalent of a religious community is ie, a territory occupied by a minority, usually in a different religion than most (in fact motivated by such minorities belong to a substrate of the population, a high percentage of cases, ethnically different, and invaded, and absorbed by another layer majority .) The concept is close to that of autonomy and was a management system polñítica the Ottoman Empire continued in view of the many internal tensions caused by the coexistence of different ethnic groups and religions. For Eastern Europe, the head of millet s fell on a Patriarch of the Orthodox Church appointed directly by the sultan. Among the most significant, we cite:

• Muslims, the Ottoman sultan was himself the caliph since 1517, once the Mamluk Empire of Egypt passed into the hands of the Porte . As with the title of Roman emperor, assumed the Turkish sultans of Caliph . Forces reunited the Western Christian states and deal with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, the approach to Islam by the Turks was higher, because it served as an attraction to the call to defend the Christian infidel. Subsequently, the pro-Islamic stance the Turks came into question when confronted with the Arab-independence riots that arose in different parts of its territory, near the end of the existence of these minorities Imperio.Todas Arabs were scattered multiple places and it was impossible to lump them in millets based on a criterion of territory.

• Jews, basically enjoyed the same privileges and obligations as the Orthodox (now see). Thessaloniki was a major focus Jew and flourished economically, peaking in the s. XIX, when he became possibly the city "Jewish " largest and most prosperous in the world.

• Orthodox Christians, although the name refers to the Greeks dominated the Ottoman Empire, all the Orthodox were included in the millet-i Rum ( Roman community) under the hegemony of the patriarch of Constantinople, Istanbul . This meant that many different ethnic groups like Serbs, Bulgarians, Vlachs, Romanians and Greeks themselves, whether stuck in the same bag , but in fact, the church hierarchy in these places was predominantly Greek. Enjoyed considerable autonomy in tax matters and administration of justice, but were forced to swear allegiance and undying loyalty to the Ottoman Empire.
  

There were also other Christian minorities such as Armenians (Evangelical-Apostolic), the Coptic and Syrian Orthodox, which constituted millets both ethnically and religiously defined, mainly due to easy geographical location of these communities.

(10) There are many disputes raised about the death of Constantine, although most studies indicate that died fighting in defense of the walls.
It is said that on 25 May, a procession with icons Orthodox and Catholic images through the center of the city to Hagia Sofia, which hosted a grand farewell Mass rang and where concelebrated by the two rites, Orthodox and Catholic, as a sign of courtesy and deference to allies Latino advocates. The collapse of some images from their bases during this procession, was interpreted as a bad omen for the inhabitants of the city. According Phrantzes account, after embracing one to one commanders, Constantine gave a speech to the defenders that has survived to this day:

[...] My lords, my brothers, my friends. The latest honor to us as Christians is in our hands [...] So it is now time that the enemy of our faith wherever we are threatened by [...] I trust in you, in your value in this beautiful and famous city in our country [...] There are four main reasons why they are worth dying for: faith, home, family and Basileus. Now you must be willing to sacrifice your lives for these things, as I also am willing to sacrifice my own life [...] As of today, Latinos and the Romans are the same people, united in God and with God's help we to save Constantinople.

This Mass was the last of Christian liturgy celebrated in the Basilica of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and probably (in my point of view) the most moving of all the history of Christianity.
According Phrantzes Constantine die near the Puerta de San Roman. After getting rid of the imperial regalia, took to the melee in a breach of the wall through which the Turkish outposts beginning to penetrate. The body would be recognized by the Turks because of his purple shoes, reserved exclusively for the emperor. Mehmet rush to bury him in a mass grave with the intention to prevent him lifting up the surviving inhabitants some kind of shrine where they worship after his death.
Others argue that mingled with the population without their attributes imperial dress and saved his life in anonymity. This is quite unlikely.
There is also a trend that suggests that Turkish leaders made their body as a trophy of war and the viscera was removed. In this guise he was hung in the column of Constantine I, command Byzantium Roman imperial power, as a sign of humiliation to the vanquished and Mehmet ordered his head embalmed and kept as a trophy particular.
General Notaras was pardoned, in principle, by the Sultan, who wanted a quick restoration of order, and also because the general wealth possessed. However, five days after the pardon, the Sultan gave a great banquet where she received news of a eunuch about the beauty of the eldest son of Notaras. Mehmet sent after him with the intention of converting the firstborn of the Byzantine general in one of his officers, something that Notaras refused, so he, his son and stepson were brought before the sultan, who ordered beheading.
Another theory suggests that Notaras retained part of the imperial treasury and given to Mehmet as proof of goodwill. The Sultan, not impressed and grateful, suggested that this money should be used to defend the city against its own attack, so Notaras was considered a traitor to their cause, so, it would also potentially the Turkish-and implemented it.
Isidore of Kiev escaped the massacre wearing clothes with a dead cardinal, whom the Turks thought it was the religious head cut off and paraded in triumph through the city, while, Cardinal true "escaped" disguised as a prisoner on a ship to Asia Minor, where he escaped (or buy their freedom) a few years later. Giovani
Giustiniani was wounded and evacuated to a ship could escape to Chios, where he died in early June because of injuries and (allegedly) bitter for having abandoned his post.
Phrantzes in principle fell to the Turks, but bought his freedom and fled to the Peloponnese, where he obtained the protection of Thomas Palaeologus, despot of Morea and brother of Constantine defeated.
most defenseless population (elderly, women and children) ran to seek refuge in churches and convents. In Hagia Sofia, the Turks broke the doors and took slaves imploring the crowd, but not before sharing the most beautiful women considered to violate, a destination that also waited for the nuns of various nunneries.

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The Fall of Constantinople / Note 8 Part 2

(follow notes - 8)

~ The

"Tercera Roma" ~

Moscow Kremlin.
Vasnetsov, Apollinaris M. (1856-1933)
(Kremlim Moscovita. Vaznetsov, Apollinari Mikhailovich )

(8) La caída de Roma itself occurred in 476, when the warlord Odoacer hérulo deposed the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was crowned king of Italy and sent the imperial insignia to Constantinople. Since then, the territory of the Eastern Empire, from the division terra Romanorum would commonly called Romania and Constantinople the "Second Rome." In fall 1453, there were various claims made with imperial dignity and thus, the attempt to relocate the capital of the Roman to another place, "by various European nobles, who considered themselves heirs of the ancient Roman dynasty, and their marriages and for matters of religion. Before the fall of Constantinople, the tsar Stefan Uroš IV Dušan (1308-1355; Στέφανος Ντουσάν Greek) emperor of Serbia, Albania and Greece between 1345 and 1355, declined take upon themselves the title of Basileus Romanorum, having allied with John VI Cantacuzenus in the civil wars of Byzantium and proclaimed Patriarch of the Orthodox Church, taking over the Mount Athos. In any case, did not seek the change of capital, but wanted to be himself the Roman emperor, despite the capture of the small monastic republic was a clear statement of intent aimed to establish itself as the highest representative of the true cristinianismo .

Dušanov Zakonik - Dusan Code

Also a tsar, this time the Bulgarian Ivan Alexander (Wiki. English) (Bulgarian Иван Александър ) Emperor of Bulgaria between 1331 and 1371, claimed the eastern Roman throne, to be involved in the civil war itself as above, except that in the other side, the Anne of Savoy, regent and mother of John V Palaeologus. At first called for Tarnovo (capital of Bulgaria at the time) the name of "New Rome", as this was considered as the true defender of the Christian faith (a ). By invading the territories during such Byzantine civil war, claimed the title on the grounds that citizens Byzantine Adrianople (Edirne) had been hailed as Basilian upon its entrance into the city. He was expelled by the Turks, who had allied Cantacuzenus ( curious link: Radio Bulgaria-English- Tetraevangelio of Ivan Alexander ) .
But the most persistent complaint came from Russia, namely of Vasily II Vasiliyevich "El Ciego" (Russian Васильевич Тёмны Василий II) Grand Duke of Moscow (1425-1462) - and hence the whole Euro-Russian who claimed that Moscow was to be proclaimed as "Third Rome ." The reasons lie in the recognition of the pope's supreme authority over all Christians by the Patriarch of Constantinople, held in the Council of Florence the imminent threat of taking the city by the Turks. Vasily II rejected the decision and was quick to appoint a Patriarch of Russia Metropolitan Митрополит Иона, San Jonah (Iona) Muscovite Metropolitan - independent of Constantinople and highest authority of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Иона Московский

.

Древнерусское лицевое шитье, Патриаршее подворье.

(Iona Muscovite. Needlework Former Russian front. Inn of the Patriarchate.

Kremlin-Moscow)

Falling Constantinople and Russia remain the most powerful representative of the Orthodox Church, whereas than other non-Orthodox Christians and Jews and Muslims, living in heresy, strengthened the idea of \u200b\u200bbeing the Grand Prince of Moscow, the successor of the Byzantine emperor as a defender of the true faith and, therefore, the city should be the capital of Christianity.
His successor, Ivan III, pushed by the canonical Orthodox, defended the stance of his predecessor and power, particularly after his marriage to Sofia Palaeologus, daughter of Thomas Palaeologus, despot of Morea who claimed the throne of Byzantium because brother of the last emperor, Constantine XI, who Sophia was therefore niece marriage was suggested by Pope Paul II in an attempt to bring Russia to the Holy See, but the princess was welcomed to the Orthodox faith, contrary to expectations. Due to family tradition, Sophie imperialist ideas instilled her husband and imposed etiquette and customs of the Byzantine court in Moscow, which even adopted the double eagle as a logo.

works are started then the aggrandizement of the Kremlin, built several cathedrals around the palace. Between 1475 and 1479 is over the Cathedral of the Dormition-Успенский Собор, " uspeisky bribes" - that would be the crowning place of the Czars thereafter. Later, between 1484 and 1489 was erected the Cathedral of the Annunciation of Theotokos (b) - Благовещенский собор, "blagoveschenky bribes" - and in 1505 began the Cathedral the Archangel Miguel-Архангельский собор, "arkangelisky bribes" - which are buried a lot of great princes Moscow.
But perhaps la más significativa, aunque sin poseer dignidad episcopal, sea la Iglesia de la Deposición-Church Deposition of the Robe, "tserkov rieopolozheniya " . Esta iglesia es conocida también como "de la Toga de la Virgen".

Church Deposition of the Robe

Moscow Kremlin
(Church of the Deposition of the Robe of Mary Moscow Kremlin)

According to tradition, Jonah Muscovite laid the foundation stone of a church in the same place in 1450, with Grand Metropolitan Patriarch. Was destroyed by fire in 1473 and on its ruins was built today under the title of "Deposition of the Robe of St. Mary." This deposition is based on a semileyenda, according to which the gown or robe of the Virgin Mary saved in Palestine, was rescued from the hands of Muslims the Byzantines, the sV alredededor and taken to Constantinople. The gown would act as protection against invasions and fervently believed that Russia had done some miracles. For example, during the Russo-Byzantine 860, Pothier, patriarch of Constantinople spread the garments over the sea, exploding to the point a storm capsized the Russian ships.

Pothier extends over the sea Toga
Fresco, 1644

Temple of the Kremlin, Moscow.

Although the toga was not never deposited in Moscow (actually it is not known for sure if you ever came to Byzantium and, of course, if it belonged to the Virgin Mary) the erection of a Metropolitan Church under this title, was a significant signal that the desire for Moscow become vested the title of "New Rome." And finally put the icing on the monk Philothea (Filofei) of Pskov - Филофей Псков ский-important hegumen (abbot) of the monastery of the town, tells the Tsar Ivan III a letter in 1510:

Two Romes have fallen. The third remains. There will be no quarter. None
headquarters will replace your Christian Tsar!

However, the new occupants of Constantinople were not willing to renounce the rights acquired as invaders, conquerors. Under the terms of Mehmet II, he was the new Roman emperor, proclaiming Kayser-i Rum, literally "Caesar of Rome." Sultan's policy focused on erecting a Third Rome in Istanbul: the first had been political, the second Christian and now he founded the Islamic Rome. His successors continued to consider heirs of the Roman Empire and note the curious case of Suleiman the Magnificent, who, referring to Charles V, the then Holy Roman Emperor, which he described as "king" and not as emperor, considered the Turkish title of your property.

The basis on which Mehmet II established political system lasted until 1922, the Ottoman Empire gave way to the Republic of Turkey, moving the capital from Istanbul to Ankara as a given schema change and ideology by the new Turkish leadership, as if staying in the old Constantinople itself meant to keep the idea of \u200b\u200bimperialism.

Osmanli library Kartposta l - 14
(Courtesy of Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz

Besitkas, Istanbul-Türkiye )

With this ideological background and the expansionist interests of both states, Russia and Turkey were involved in various conflicts and wars for nearly the next 5 (!) centuries, which contributed significantly to the weakening and disappearance of the Ottoman Empire.

Osmanli Stock Kartposta l - 219
(Courtesy of Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz.
Besitkas, Istanbul-Türkiye )

[ Comment: The Grand Duke Nikolay Nikolayevich and visit the sultan in the Dolmabahçe Sarayıl before the First World War, where both countries contended (of course) on opposite sides]

Anecdotally, the title of "New Rome, wanted to use in other times and places, cases of Paris of Louis IVX or Napoleon III, or Benito Mussolini, claiming "Fascist Rome" and the third, after the Imperial and Christian ( speech December 31, 1925 ).

seems clear that, in effect, the fall of Constantinople marked the end and beginning, respectively, of two periods of history very different and there can be little argument about the correctness of its use as a milestone marking the to the Middle Ages.

link гoлoc POCC ия - "The Voice of Russia ".

(a) During his reign there were several religious persecution, seeking to strengthen the supremacy of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Promoted anti heresies two councils, one in 1350 and again between 1359-60, where they were convicted of various sects, for the bogomils , the Adamites and j udaizantes (on these latter, see Gal. 2, 14 ).

Also during his reign became widely the Hesychasm or , one of the most representative proponents of this movement Theodore Tarnovo (the latter link, for those who know or can translate Bulgarian)

(b) Theotokos, Θεοτόκος literally "to stop God, ed the Mother of God. The above gown of Mary, they said, was used by the Virgin in this title, que atañe a la naturaleza humana de Cristo.

Uspensky Cathedral (1475-1479)
Catedral de la Dormición
Aristotele Fioravanti - Aristotle Fioravanti

primate Peter Cathedral
Catedral del preboste Pedro
Aloisio Il Novo - Alevi is Frya is Ying (New)

Archangel Cathedral (1505-1508)
Catedral del Arcángel

Aloisio Il Novo - Alevi is Frya is Ying (New)



Troitskaya Tower (1495)
Torre de la Trinidad
Alosio da Milano-Aleviz "Fryazin" Milanese

Vodovzvodnaya bashnya (1488)
Torre Vodovzvodnaya
Antonio Gilardi - Antonio Dzhilardi


Taynitskaya bashnya (1485)
Torre Taynitskaya
Antonio Gilardi - Antonio Dzhilardi

Borovitskaya Tower (1490)
Torre Borovitskaya
Marco Rufo - Marco Ruffo


Annunciation Tower (1487 -88)
Torre Blagoveschenskaya
Marco Rufo - Marco Ruffo


Constantine and Helen Tower (1490)
Torre Konstantino-Yeleninskaya
Marco Rufo - Marco Ruffo

Nabatnaya tower (1495)
Torre Nabatnaya
¿?

Average Arsenal Tower (1495)
Torre Spednayaya Arsenaliaya
¿?


Armory tower (1495)
Torre Oruzyeinaya
¿?


Beklemishev Tower Tower (1487-88)
Torre Beklemiskaya
Marco Rufo - Marco Ruffo

Senate Tower (1491)
Torre Sepatskaya
Pietro Antonio Solari - Pietro Antonio Solari


Nicholas Tower (1491)
Torre Nikolskaya
Pietro Antonio Solari - Pietro Antonio Solari


Arsenal corner tower (1492)
Torre Arsenalnaya Uglovaya (" de la esquina del arsena l")
Pietro Antonio Solari - Pietro Antonio Solari

Faceted Chamber (1485-1501)

(Palacio de las Facetas)

Marco Rufo y Pietro Antonio Solari -

Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari

Novodevichy Convent in Moscow (1524)
(Monasterio de Novodevichy, Moscú )

Foto Cloverpal , London-England

Moscow Kremlin. View from the Moscow River.

(Kremlim de Moscú. Vista aérea desde el río Moscova)

(Continúa entrada siguiente)

Make Your Own Wrestling Belt Online

The Fall of Constantinople / Notes 6 and 7 of Part 2

(They note-6 and 7)

Walls of Theodosius

(6) As the number of ships of the Turkish fleet, also There are different views. Here are the most significant:
says Barbaro 100 (op.cit. Note 5b); Tedaldi, 145 (op.cit. Note 5c) and Púsculo (a) up to 160.
As with the figures for ground troops, laypeople and Leonardo Kiev Isidore of Chios (ops.cit. 5e and 4b. 930C) exaggerate and give more numbers from 200 to 250 ships. And Phrantzes (op.cit. 5d) takes the cake, scoring 430.
Current investigations seek to refine and talk about 6 large galleys, 10 normal and 15 small, separate rowing barges 75 large and 20 cargo ships for the animals. In total 126.

(a) Ubertino Pusculo, Constantinople, 1464

(Courtesy of Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz

Collection Osmanli Kartpostal - 171
Besitkas, l- Istambu Türkiye)

(7) The Greek fire was a weapon incendiary used by the Byzantine Empire. Incendiary projectiles had been used previously (Persians, Romans ...) and were usually thrown by catapults and the like. Flammable substance filled the projectile, which should be started before being released. While there are historical references of its use by the Arabs, Chinese and Mongolian, the formula does not was the original and has been given many times the name of Greek fire weapons actually were not.

Authentic Greek fire was very particular to burn by itself, without a bullet-support (current mode flamethrower) and continue to burn in contact with water, something that other "copies" no getting completely. Even the attempt to stifle it with water au intensified action. For this reason it is used extensively at sea, trying to fleets Byzantine hegemony in this way.

The secret of its manufacture was guarded jealously by Byzantium, becoming its custody in a matter of state. Even the Crusaders or the Turks were able to discover when they conquered the Byzantines.

Although the original formula remains unknown, including some of the ingredients that could be speculation, we find naphtha, bitumen, sulfur, lime, potassium nitrate, beeswax, olive oil ...

It is called "Greek", although at different times and places was called "Byzantine fire", "Roman fire", "sea fire" - πῦρ θαλάσσιον-"liquid fire" - ὑγρόν πῦρ - or "fireworks" - πῦρ σκευαστόν, "a term that appears in some Byzantine military manuals.

"Greek Fire"
Σύνοψις Ἱστοριῶν (XI century) - Ἰωάννης Σκυλίτζης
National Library of Spain, Madrid

Prior to its discovery had been used mixtures petroleum and bituminous materials more or less worked, but the Greek fire was virtually impossible to shut down and lay in the water very quickly, making it a devastating weapon.
The first thing we have something similar in Byzantium, or, if you will, of a precedent, is the year 513 AD when the Emperor Anastasius I was facing a revolt and bring to a wise Athenian name Proclus, who makes a kind of powder burns on contact with sunlight, as he relates Juan Malalas - Ἰωάννης Μαλάλας-(491-578).

However, according to Theophanes The Confessor the invention is due to a certain Callinicus, an architect from Heliopolis (Baalbek, an ancient Phoenicia), who invented it to 670. have numerous news is its use by the Byzantines in the various wars that the rule contended throughout its existence and it seems to be first used in 674 against the Arab Umayyads in first siege of Constantinople (673-678) and the Battle of Silea, in 678, a naval confrontation occurred during the long siege and the fire was decisive because Grigo. The only reference of its composition has come from a Byzantine is a reference in alexia, written by Ana Conmena (1083-1153), daughter of Emperor Alexius I Conmena, although it seems more a product of his invention that the true knowledge of the formula, or gave a phony formula to "mislead" undesirable potential readers (a) :

"Fire" is made with the following gear. Inflammable resin is collected from the pine trees and some evergreens. This resin is mixed with sulfur and gets into reed pipes, which are blown by men violently and relentlessly. Thereby drive the " fire" until the end of the tube, which swells and falls like a whirlwind igneous on the faces of the enemies.

Although the data is indirect, it appears that the substance ignites on contact with air or water, which is causing him to speculate about its composition, since, as we said before, other methods known in antiquity needed to be lit before its release.
It also has some news about the functioning of the mechanism used for propulsion, it seems that the ingredients were preheated in a boiler and then pumped through a siphon or large syringe Managed by a specialist called sifonarios -σιφωναριος-(or sifonator ), whose output is installed in the bow of the boat. This type of boat called itself siphonophores dromon (b) -σιφωνoφoρoς δρόμων. Large ships could have more of a trap, not only ahead but in different places.
De Ortu Waluuanii Nepotis Arturi ( The rise of Gawin, nephew of Arthur ) anonymous late medieval romance the XIIth belonging to the Arthurian cycle , contains one of the earliest references on the European non-Byzantine Greek fire, although the description given in this account of its manufacture is a mixture of folklore and magic, could well result a substance similar to napalm.
also find an entry in Memoirs of J. Joinville (1224-1317), chronicler of St. Louis of France, speaking of its use by Muslims in the Seventh Crusade:

happened that one night while we were watching the towers of Tortosa (c) that (Saracens) attacked us with a machine called "perronel" that had never ever used, and sling contraption filled with Greek fire. When this fine gentleman is Sir Walter de Cureil saw this, we spoke as follows: "Gentlemen, we are facing the greatest danger we have ever known. If you burn our turrets and shelters, we are lost and burnt. And if they do repeatedly, leaving defenses that have been entrusted, we are in distress, so nobody can get rid of this danger except God himself. Therefore, my opinion and notice is this: every time we launch the fire, we kneel and we will pray to God Lord save us from this risk ."[...]
[...] This is the aspect of Greek fire: he came flying towards us like a barrel of vinegar used for dragging a tail of fire as long as a lance and he fell made a noise like thunder in the sky. It looked like a fiery dragon flying [...] Due to the brilliance of fire, the camp could be like daylight.

"The Saracens casting Greek fire Into the camp of King Louis"

George Morrow Illustration for the book
The Crusaders, a story of the war for the Holy Sepulchre by Reverend
AJChurch, MA
Seeley & Co. LTD, London. 1905

(a) is rare that just one member of the imperial family give clues to the formula, although in a somewhat innocent, since, as mentioned, was a secret kept with utmost zeal. Without going any further, Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (905-959) - Κωνσταντίνος Ζ Πορφυρογέννητος- in From Managing Empire (actually called Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον υἱὸν Ρωμανόν, "my own son Romano ) says there are three things that should never fall into the hands of foreigners: the crown, the hand of a prince born under purpura (Porphyrogenitus) and fire water-πύρ ένυγρον .
(b) The dromon was a typical Byzantine ship model which had its predecessor in the Roman trireme.

Rebuilding a Siphonophores Dromon

(c) Tortosa Island (Arabic طرطوس, Tartus ) is a coastal town in Syria that was part of the Roman Empire and beyond, for a short time, the Byzantine, who lost at the hands of the Muslims in 636. Later, in 1123, was taken by the Crusaders, who was left in the hands of the Templars. These in turn were defeated by Saladin, who, however, allowed to use the port as a base and maintain a small garrison, the last enclave Templar of the Middle East on the mainland until 1291, when it fell definitively to the disappearance of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem ( see Annex 5 ).

Tortosa

(Courtesy Denizcilik Muhteşem Tarihimiz
Osmanli Stock Kartpostal -187
Besitkas, Istanbul-Türkiye)

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